What was the primary basis for appointments to the civil service during most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?

During most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, appointments to the civil service were primarily based on patronage. This system allowed for political leaders to appoint individuals to government positions as a reward for their loyalty and support, often irrespective of their qualifications or competence.

The patronage system created a network where political connections were more valued than merit, leading to what is commonly referred to as the "spoils system." This practice was prevalent until reform movements emerged, particularly with the implementation of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883, which aimed to establish a merit-based system for hiring and promoting civil service employees. Nonetheless, the dominance of patronage appointments for much of this period is critical to understanding the evolution of the American bureaucratic system.

While merit-based selection and other systems have been proposed and implemented at various times, they did not dominate the civil service landscape during the key periods in question as patronage did.